From Greek Letters to Linguistic Signs: Exploring the Intersection of Phonetic and Ideographic Systems in Saussure's Linguistics

 

Just compare heart, beard, and heard,

Dies and diet, lord and word,

Sword and sward, retain and Britain.

(Mind the latter, how it’s written.)

 

Finally, which rhymes with enough,

Though, through, bough, cough, hough, or tough?

Hiccough has the sound of "cup."

My advice is—give it up!

"The Chaos" by Gerard Nolst Trenité (Charivarius).

Introduction

In Of Grammatology, Derrida notes that Saussure categorizes writing systems into two types: one that globally and synthetically represents words (ideographic system) and another that phonetically represents the elements of sounds constituting words (phonetic system). Saussure further narrows the discussion by focusing only on the phonetic system, particularly the one derived from the Greek alphabet, which is in use today.

Derrida argues that, given the now evident fragility of concepts like pictogram and ideogram, and the blurred boundaries between pictographic, ideographic, and phonetic writing systems, Saussure's limitations are unwise (“The unwiseness of the Saussurian limitation”). Derrida suggests that general linguistics must move beyond these outdated metaphysical concepts, often influenced by psychology, which cluster around the concept of arbitrariness (pp. 32-33).

These arguments have led some scholars to believe that, first, Saussure privileges "the phonetic system of writing" over other systems like the ideographic system, and second, that he was unaware of “the uncertainty of the frontiers between so-called pictographic, ideographic, and phonetic scripts.” However, a deeper examination reveals several nuances and intricacies in Saussure's perspective. Let's take a closer look.

Embracing Ideographic and Phonetic Systems in Cours de Linguistique Générale

Saussure recognized the interplay between ideographic and phonetic systems in language. He observed that familiar words function similarly to ideograms: readers recognize common words like "cat" or "house" instantly, without reading them letter by letter. This mirrors how ideograms represent entire concepts without breaking them down into phonetic components.

“We read in two ways. A new or unknown word is scanned letter by letter. But a common, familiar word is taken in at a glance, without bothering about the individual letters; its visual shape functions like an ideogram.” [CGL] [57]

This dual reading process—analytical for new words and holistic for familiar ones—highlights the interaction between phonetic and ideographic elements. When encountering new words, readers scan each letter and convert them into sounds to piece together the word. For example, reading a complex term like "pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis" requires careful attention to each letter and syllable, involving phonetic decoding.

In contrast, holistic reading applies to familiar words, where readers recognize the entire word as a single unit without analyzing individual letters. Words like "cat," "the," or "house" are instantly recognized, with their visual shapes functioning like ideograms. This allows readers to perceive the whole word as a distinct unit of meaning.

Saussure's insight suggests cognitive processing adapts based on word familiarity. For familiar words, the brain uses a shortcut, recognizing the overall shape and pattern of the word, much like recognizing a picture. This duality enhances reading efficiency, allowing faster comprehension of familiar text while still providing a mechanism to decode new information accurately.

Modern cognitive psychology and neuroscience have expanded on these ideas. The dual-route hypothesis posits two distinct pathways for reading: the lexical route for familiar words, recognized as whole units, and the sublexical route for unfamiliar words, involving phonetic decoding. Research using eye-tracking and brain imaging supports this model, showing different neural pathways activated for familiar and unfamiliar words.

The Visual Word Form Area (VWFA), a region in the left fusiform gyrus of the brain, is specifically involved in recognizing written words. Studies using functional MRI (fMRI) have shown that this area is highly active when reading familiar words, indicating holistic recognition. For new words, more distributed areas involving phonetic decoding are engaged.

With practice and exposure, reading becomes more automatic. Frequent exposure to familiar words makes their recognition almost instantaneous, reducing cognitive load and allowing for smoother and more efficient reading. This automaticity reflects the dual process in reading, ensuring both accuracy in decoding new words and efficiency in recognizing familiar ones.

Saussure's observation about this dual reading process underscores a sophisticated understanding of how we interact with written language, blending phonetic and ideographic elements in our reading practice.

The Greek Alphabet: A Model of Simplicity

In "Course in General Linguistics," Saussure praises the Greek alphabet in its primitive form for its straightforward correspondence between symbols and sounds. Each letter consistently represents a single phonetic element, ensuring clarity and precision in transcription. For example, in the word "bárbaros" (barbarian):

•       B = [b]

•       A = [a]

•       R = [r]

•       B = [b]

•       A = [a]

•       R = [r]

•       O = [o]

•       S = [s]

This unambiguous one-to-one relationship exemplifies the "brilliant simplicity" Saussure admires. The Greek alphabet avoids the complexities and ambiguities found in many modern languages, where variable representations and combined sounds can cause confusion. For instance, in French, the sound [ʃ] (as in "chapeau") is represented by "ch," and the sound [s] can be written as both "c" and "s." In English, "x" represents the combination [ks] in "box."

The ancient Greek alphabet's simplicity lies in its consistent phonetic representation, making it easier to learn and use. Each letter's fixed association with a specific sound reduces cognitive load, allowing for more efficient reading and writing. This predictability and regularity contrast with the irregularities and exceptions in other languages, highlighting why Saussure viewed it as a model of linguistic clarity and effectiveness.

Saussure did not privilege phonetic writing in general, as he criticized the inconsistencies in many phonetic systems. Instead, he singled out the Greek alphabet in its most primitive form.

In the primitive Greek alphabet, there are no combinations like our modern French ch for š. Nor are there variable representations of a single sound, like our c and s for the sound s. Nor are there single characters representing a combination of sounds, like our x for ks. This principle, which is both a necessary and a sufficient condition for good transcription, was adopted almost without exception by the Greeks. [CGL] [64]

But why was Saussure so interested in this specific writing system? This is what we are going to elucidate next.

Delimiting Linguistic Units: Language as a Condition of Possibility

Saussure's ideas about linguistic units, or signs, introduced a ground-breaking perspective on understanding language. His regard for the simplicity of the ancient Greek alphabet aligns with his theoretical concerns about identifying and delimiting linguistic units within the amorphous mass of language.

Linguistic Units are Not Pre-given: Saussure argues that linguistic units, or signs, are not inherently obvious and the linguist must identify them through analysis. This view contrasts with the common notion that words are pre-existing and easily identifiable units of meaning (nomenclaturist view). For Saussure, the linguistic sign is a consequence of the language system (la langue) rather than an independently existing entity. This perspective implies that identifying linguistic units is a complex process requiring careful analysis and contextual understanding. It involves deciphering the intricate interplay of sounds and meanings within the language system.

Language as a Condition of Possibility: Saussure posits that language (la langue) provides the framework within which signs are identified. He likens la langue (not the sign, as Derrida erroneously believes) to a sheet of paper where the shapes, or units, are 'cut out.' Here is where the idea of considering words as ideograms, as 'cut outs' comes into play.

This analogy suggests that the structure of language itself determines how signs are delimited and understood. Linguistic units are context-dependent and systemically defined; they cannot be fully understood in isolation but must be seen as part of the larger linguistic system. This systemic nature of language underscores the importance of understanding the interrelationships between different linguistic elements to accurately identify and interpret signs.

Examining these concepts reveals that Saussure's interest in the Greek alphabet's simplicity is closely related to his methodological need to find a clear and precise way to delimit linguistic units. The Greek primitive alphabet, with its one-to-one correspondence between symbols and sounds, serves as an exemplary model of how linguistic signs can be distinctly and unambiguously represented. This clarity and precision resonate with Saussure's broader theoretical concerns, highlighting the importance of systemic analysis in identifying and delimiting linguistic signs.

Conclusion

As seen in this analysis, Saussure's linguistics, far from being "unwise," demonstrates a nuanced understanding of the inner workings of the language mechanism. Under closer examination, it is revealed that he did not privilege phonetic writing systems per se, as he criticized the inconsistencies found in many of them. Instead, his admiration for the primitive Greek alphabet stemmed from its methodological clarity and simplicity. This preference was due to the Greek alphabet's one-to-one correspondence between symbols and sounds, providing a clear and precise model to delimit linguistic units.

Furthermore, Saussure recognized the interconnectedness between phonetic and ideographic writing systems. He noted how the visual shape of a word, once it has entered the language system, functions like an ideogram, enabling holistic recognition of familiar words. This insight underscores Saussure's appreciation for both phonetic and ideographic elements in language, acknowledging their roles in reading and comprehension and their methodological practicality.

Saussure's approach encourages a holistic and systematic analysis that transcends simplistic categorizations. His insights enrich our understanding of the intricate dynamics within language systems, highlighting the importance of examining the interplay between different linguistic elements to accurately identify and interpret signs.

Cite this page: "Return to Saussure".  http://www.derridaforlinguists.blogspot.com

Related Post:

Phonetic Writing in Cours de Linguistique Générale: Exploring the Greek Model

https://derridaforlinguists.blogspot.com/2024/05/blog-post_25.html

 

Bibliography

Saussure, Ferdinand de. "Course in General Linguistics." Translated and annotated by Roy Harris. With a new introduction by Roy Harris. Bloomsbury, 2013.

Saussure, Ferdinand de. Cours de linguistique générale. Edited by Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye, with the collaboration of Albert Riedlinger. Arbre d’Or, Genève, 2005.

Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Corrected Edition. Translated by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. Copyright © 1974, 1976, 1997 by The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Schwanenflugel, Paula J., and Nancy Flanagan Knapp. The Psychology of Reading: Theory and Applications. New York: The Guildford Press, 2016.

Rayner, Keith, Alexander Pollatsek, Jane Ashby, and Charles Clifton Jr. The Psychology of Reading. New York: Psychology Press, 2012.

Dehaene, Stanislas. Reading in the Brain: The Science and Evolution of a Human Invention. New York: Penguin Books, 2010.

Seidenberg, Mark. Language at the Speed of Sight: How We Read, Why So Many Can't, and What Can Be Done About It. New York: Basic Books, 2017.

Dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-route_hypothesis_to_reading_aloud

The visual word form area (VWFA)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_word_form_area

Reading

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading