The Philosophical Missteps of Postmodernism, Poststructuralism, and Social Constructivism

Introduction

The intellectual legacy of Ferdinand de Saussure has profoundly shaped modern thought, particularly in the fields of linguistics and semiology. However, the philosophical trajectories of postmodernism, poststructuralism, and social constructivism, which emerged in the mid-20th century, reveal significant misinterpretations of Saussure's theories. These movements, which challenge the notion of objective truth and elevate narrative as a primary means of constructing reality, often draw on a flawed understanding of Saussure’s distinction between le langage and la langue. This article explores the philosophical missteps that arise from these misreadings, examining how they have contributed to a worldview where subjective narratives are often given precedence over empirical reality.

The Inner Struggle of Ferdinand de Saussure

Ferdinand de Saussure's arrival in Paris marked a promising start to his academic career, as he quickly became an influential figure in the linguistic community. Émile Benveniste, in Problems in General Linguistics, notes that Saussure's innovative ideas captivated both students and colleagues.

However, this initial momentum soon waned. His scholarly output became increasingly sporadic, often reluctant, and mainly at the urging of friends. Upon returning to Geneva to accept a university chair, his public contributions nearly ceased, though he continued to work privately, writing and reflecting in isolation.

The root of Saussure's withdrawal lay in an increasingly disillusioned with prevailing theories and methods, the "absolute ineptness of current terminology" and the flawed foundations of contemporary research. His frustration is vividly captured in a letter to Antoine Meillet dated January 4, 1894, where he expressed deep dissatisfaction with the state of linguistic scholarship. This dissatisfaction led to his reluctance to publish, as he found it impossible to write without a firm theoretical foundation, delaying even simple articles as he sought to avoid using "logically odious" expressions. (Cashier 21, 1964, p95-96)

Saussure’s Radical Reform

We see signs of Saussure’s “radical reform” in his Course in General Linguistics (CGL), where he introduces a critical distinction between two concepts: le langage (language as a broad phenomenon) and la langue (the abstract structure of language). This distinction is central to understanding Saussure's reform of linguistic study.

He points out that unlike other sciences with well-defined subjects, linguistics must grapple with the inherent complexity of le langage. A word might seem straightforward but can be analyzed from various perspectives: as a sound, a concept, a historical artifact, and more. For example, the French word nu ("naked") can be understood differently depending on the focus—whether on its phonetic, semantic, or etymological aspects (CGL, [23]). This multifaceted nature of le langage makes it a complex, heterogeneous phenomenon that resists simple categorization.

In contrast, la langue is defined by Saussure as a homogeneous system—the structured set of conventions shared by a linguistic community. While le langage is broad and varied, la langue is a self-contained, stable system that provides a clear object of study for linguistics: A language as a structured system, on the contrary, is both a self-contained whole and a principle of classification (CGL, [25]). This distinction is crucial for establishing linguistics as a coherent science.

Misreading Saussure

Saussure’s distinction between le langage and la langue has often been misunderstood, particularly in translation. In his theoretical framework, these terms carry specific technical meanings. However, when translated into languages like English, where "language" serves as the umbrella term for both concepts, confusion can arise. This has led some to mistakenly interpret Saussure as suggesting that "language" (le langage) is a self-contained system, when, in fact, he described la langue—the abstract, structured aspect of language—as such. Saussure emphasized that la langue is a "self-contained whole" and a principle of classification, distinguishing it from le langage, which is far more complex and diffuse. Misunderstanding this distinction has contributed to the erroneous belief that language exists as a unified, self-contained entity divorced from reality.

A similar misreading applies to the Saussurean concept of difference, which has been appropriated and sometimes misunderstood by various intellectual movements. In the Course in General Linguistics, Saussure states: "Everything we have said so far comes down to this. In the language itself, there are only differences. Even more important than that is the fact that, although in general a difference presupposes positive terms between which the difference holds, in a language there are only differences, and no positive terms." (CGL, 166)

This passage has led some thinkers to mistakenly assume that Saussure was suggesting that in "language" (le langage) everything boils down to differences (différance), when in fact, he was referring specifically to la langue.

This same misunderstanding is evident in Saussure's now-famous quote: "language is a form, not a substance:" A language (la langue) might also be compared to a sheet of paper. Thought is one side of the sheet and sound the reverse side. Linguistics, then, operates along this margin, where sound and thought meet. The contact between them gives rise to a form, not a substance (CGL, [156, 157]). Here, Saussure is clearly referring to la langue, not le langage.

In all these cases, the discussion focuses on la langue as a didactic methodological construct, rather than on the relationship between language and reality.

Philosophical Consequences

This misinterpretation of Saussure's ideas has influenced various mid-20th-century philosophical and social theories, particularly those that emphasize the role of language over objective reality. Movements like postmodernism, poststructuralism, and social constructivism, which challenge the notion of objective truth and emphasize the power of "narrative," seem to draw, at least in part, on a misreading of Saussure.

These schools of thought often treat language as a self-contained system where meaning is constructed through narrative, rather than reflecting an external reality. This perspective has led to a focus on the dominance of certain narratives over others, often at the expense of factual accuracy. The result is a philosophical stance that prioritizes subjective experience and narrative over empirical truth, contributing to debates where "truth" becomes a matter of which narrative prevails.

Critics argue that this approach can lead to extreme relativism, where the distinction between truth and fiction is blurred. The foundational error here lies in the misinterpretation of Saussure’s original distinction between le langage and la langue, which, when properly understood, does not support such a relativistic view of language and reality.

Conclusion

The misinterpretation of Ferdinand de Saussure's linguistic theories has had far-reaching consequences, particularly in the philosophical domains of postmodernism, poststructuralism, and social constructivism. By conflating Saussure’s nuanced distinction between le langage and la langue, these movements have fostered a view of language as a self-contained system disconnected from objective reality. This has led to a form of extreme relativism where truth is seen as contingent on narrative rather than rooted in empirical facts. Recognizing and correcting these philosophical missteps is crucial for grounding discussions of language, truth, and reality in a more accurate understanding of Saussure’s original insights: Return to Saussure!

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Saussure, Ferdinand de. "Course in General Linguistics." Translated and annotated by Roy Harris. With a new introduction by Roy Harris. Bloomsbury, 2013.

Saussure, Ferdinand de. Cours de linguistique générale. Edited by Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye, with the collaboration of Albert Riedlinger. Arbre d’Or, Genève, 2005.

Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure (page 95). Revue de linguistique générale. Comité de rédaction: André Burger, secrétaire; Robert Godel, trésorier; Edmond Sollberger. Genève: Librairie Droz S. A., 1964. Accessed August 11, 2024. https://www.cercleferdinanddesaussure.org/CFS/Volume_21_1964.pdf.

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